Kekaisaran Timuriyah

Timuriyah

ایران و توران
Iran wa Turan

گورکانیان (Persia)

*Gūrkāniyān*
Timuriyah; ایران و توران; Iran wa Turan; ; گورکانیان (Persia); Gūrkāniyān;
1370–1507
	Bendera
	Semboyan: راستى رستى; Rāstī rastī; "Dalam kebenaran terletak keselamatan"
	Jangkauan wilayah terluas pada masa Timur lenk (hijau) dan wilayah pertempuran dan ekspansi (hijau terang)
Ibu kota	Samarkand (1370–1405); Herat (1405–1507);
Bahasa yang umum digunakan	Persian (official, court language, high literature, lingua franca); Chagatai; Arab (bahasa akademis);
Agama	Agama Negara Islam Sunni (Hanafi); Agama lainnya yang diakui Syiah Dua Belas Imam; Syah Ismailiyah; Zoroaster; Hindu; Huruf; Nestorian;
Pemerintahan	Monarki Keamiran
Amir
• 1370–1405	Timur Lenk
• 1506–1507	Badi' al-Zaman
Era Sejarah	Abad Pertengahan
• Timur memulai penaklukan	1363
• Pendirian Kekaisaran Timuriyah	1370
• Permulaan Ekspansi ke Barat	1380
• Pertempuran Ankara	20 Juli 1402
• Kejatuhan Samarkand	1505
• Kejatuhan Herat	1507
• Pendirian Kesultanan Mughal	1526
Luas
1405 est.	4.400.000 km2 (1.700.000 sq mi)
Didahului oleh	Digantikan oleh
	Kekhanan Chagatai
	dnsDinasti Sufi
	Jalayirid
	dnsDinasti Kurt
	Muzaffarid
	Sarbadar
	Marashi
	dnsDinasti Afrasiyab
	Kara Koyunlu
	krjKerajaan Georgia
Kekhanan Bukhara
dnsDinasti Safawiyah
Kekhanan Khiva
Kara Koyunlu
Aq Qoyunlu
kslKesultanan Mughal
krjKerajaan Georgia
	Sunting kotak info • Lihat • BicaraBantuan penggunaan templat ini

Kekaisaran Timuriyah atau Timurid (bahasa Persia: تیموریان), atau sebutan diri Gurkani (bahasa Persia: گورکانیان ), adalah Monarki Persia-Turki-Mongol ^[6]^[7] yang meliputi wilayah saat ini Uzbekistan, Iran, Kaukasus Selatan, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, seluruh Asia Tengah, juga sebagian India, Pakistan, Suriah dan Turki.

Kerajaan ini didirikan oleh Timur (juga dikenal sebagai Tamerlane), seorang panglima perang dari keturunan Turko-Mongol, yang mendirikan kekaisaran, memerintah dari 1370 hingga kematiannya pada 1405. Dia menganggap dirinya sebagai restorator besar dari Genghis Khan Kekaisaran Mongol, menganggap dirinya sebagai pewaris Genghis dan banyak berhubungan dengan Borjigin. Timur melanjutkan hubungan perdagangan yang kuat dengan Ming Tiongkok dan Golden Horde, dengan diplomat China seperti Ma Huan dan Chen Cheng secara teratur melakukan perjalanan ke barat ke Samarkanduntuk mengumpulkan upeti dan menjual barang, melanjutkan tradisi kerajaan Mongol. Kekaisaran tersebut menyebabkan Renaisans Timuriyah, khususnya pada masa pemerintahan astronom dan ahli matematika Ulugh Begh.

Pada tahun 1467, dinasti Timuriyah yang berkuasa, kehilangan sebagian besar wilayah Persia ke tangan Azerbaijan dan konfederasi Aq Qoyunlu. Tetapi anggota dinasti Timuriyah terus memerintah negara bagian yang lebih kecil, kadang-kadang dikenal sebagai Keamiran Timuriyah, di Asia Tengah dan sebagian India. Pada abad ke-16, Babur, seorang pangeran Timuriyah dari Ferghana (sekarang Uzbekistan), menginvasi Kabulistan (Afghanistan modern) dan mendirikan kerajaan kecil di sana. Dua puluh tahun kemudian, dia menggunakan kerajaan ini sebagai tempat pertempuran untuk menyerang India dan mendirikan Kerajaan Mughal.

Nama

Sejarawan Timuriyah, Sharaf al-Din Ali Yazdi menyatakan dalam karyanya Zafarnama (Kitab Kemenangan) bahwa nama negara Timur adalah Turan (Persia: توران). Timur secara pribadi memerintahkan untuk mengukir nama Turan sebagai nama negaranya ke dalam pecahan batu di lereng gunung Ulu Tagh (sekarang Kazakhstan), yang sekarang dikenal sebagai prasasti Karsakpay.^[8] Teks aslinya, khususnya, menyatakan :

"... Sultan Turan, Timur bey naik dengan tiga ratus ribu tentara untuk Islam di Bulgaria Khan, Tokhtamysh Khan ..."

Sejarah

Timur menaklukkan sebagian besar bekas wilayah Iran kuno di Asia Tengah, terutama Transoxiana, Khwarezmia dan Khorasan, dari 1363 dan seterusnya dengan berbagai aliansi. Meskipun bertindak atas nama Soyurghatmïsh, Khan Chagatai, Timur akhirnya menguasai bagian barat Chagatai dengan memakai gelar Amir, yang secara nominal di bawah Khan. Namun kenyataannya Timurlah yang mengangkat para Khan sebagai penguasa boneka belaka.

Kebangkitan

Negara Timuriyah dan wilayah taklukannya.

Sejak 1330-an, Chagatai telah terbelah dua, antara Mawarannahr (Transoxiana) di barat dan Moghulistan di timur. Pada 1358 Tughlugh Timur, Khan dari Moghulistan menginvasi Transoxiana, membunuh amir Qazaqhan (penguasa de facto Chagatai). Timur menjadi pengikut Tughlugh menempati posisi kepala suku Barlas. Timur membentuk aliansi dengan Amir Husain (cucu Qazaqhan) dengan menikahi saudara perempuannya. Ketika Tughlugh mengangkat Ilyas Khoja sebagai gubernur Mawannahr, Timur dan Husain sama-sama memberontak tetapi dikalahkan oleh tentara Khoja di Tashkent.

Timur akhirnya mampu mengalahkan Ilyas Khoja, memukul mundur hingga ke timur (Moghulistan), Dengan begitu, Timur menjadi penguasa Samarkand. Pada 1370 Timur memutuskan untuk menyerang Amir Husain di Balkh. Timur kemudian memulai kampanye ke arah barat pada 1380, menyerang berbagai negara penerus Ilkhanat. Pada 1381, ia telah mengalahkan dinasti Kart dari Herat dan bergerak ke daratan Persia dengan banyak keberhasilan. Mengepung Isfahan pada tahun 1387, menaklukan Muzaffarid di Syiraz pada tahun 1393, dan pengusiran Jalayirid dari Baghdad . Pada 1394–1395, ia menang atas Gerombolan Emas, invasi ke Georgia, setelah itu ia menegakkan kedaulatannya di Kaukasus.

Di India, Timur menaklukkan Multan dan Dipalpur pada tahun 1398. Ia mengirim pasukan yang dipimpin oleh cucunya Pir Muhammad untuk menyeberangi Indus dan menyerang Multan. pada tahun yang sama, Timur sendiri memimpin pasukan utama melintasi Indus, ia merebut benteng Loni dan Bhatnair. Pada bulan Desember 1398, Timur memenangkan pertempuran kecil dengan tentara Sultan Mahmud Shah, ini menyebabkan kemenangannya masuk ke Delhi, dia membantai kota tetapi membiarkan para pengrajin dikirim ke Samarkand. Dia meninggalkan Delhi pada Januari 1399.

Kemudian pada 1400–1401 ia menaklukkan Aleppo, Damaskus dan Anatolia timur, pada 1401 ia menghancurkan Baghdad dan pada 1402 mengalahkan Utsmaniyah dalam Pertempuran Ankara. Menyebabkan perang saudara di Kesultanan Utsmaniyah. Sementara itu, ia mengubah Samarkand menjadi ibu kota utama dan pusat pemerintahannya.^[9]

Kemunduran

Timur mengangkat putra dan cucu-cucunya untuk menjadi gubernur utama, meskipun juga menunjuk orang luar untuk menduduki jabatan gubernur di beberapa wilayah lain. Setelah kematiannya pada tahun 1405, keluarga tersebut mulai terlibat dalam perselisihan dan perang saudara, yang melemahkan dimasti dan banyak gubernur menjadi merdeka sepenuhnya. Kebangkitan Qara Qayunlu di Iran berhasil mengalahkan Timuriyah bahkan menduduki Herat. Setelah kematian Jahan Shah Timuriyah, Uzun Hasan, bey dari Aq Qoyunlu, menaklukkan wilayah tersebut dan Qara Qoyunlu di Iran antara tahun 1469 dan 1471.

Penguasa

Amir

Gelar	Nama Personal	Memerintah
Timur berkuasa secara de facto di Kekhanan Chagatai bersama Soyurghatmïsh Khan kemudian dengan Sultan Mahmud Khan. Dirinya mengadopsi gelar Amir. Kekaisaran Timuriyah didirikan setelah Kekhanan Chagatai berakhir.
Amir امیر Timur Lenk (si Pincang) تیمور لنگ	Timur Beg Gurkani تیمور بیگ گورکانی	1370–1405
Amir امیر	Pir Muhammad bin Jahangir Mirza پیر محمد بن جہانگیر میرزا	1405–1407
Amir امیر	Khalil Sultan bin Miran Shah خلیل سلطان بن میران شاہ	1405–1409
Amir امیر	Shahrukh Mirza شاھرخ میرزا	1405–1447
Amir امیر Ulugh Beg الغ بیگ	Mirza Muhammad Tāraqi میرزا محمد طارق	1447–1449
Pembagian Kekaisaran Timuriyah

Transoxiana	Khurasan/Herat/Fars/Iraq-e-Ajam
Abdul-Latif Mirza عبداللطیف میرزا Padarkush (Dibunuh) 1449–1450	Ala al-Dawla Mirza علاء الدولہ میرزا بن بایسنقر ? Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza میرزا ابوالقاسم بابر بن بایسنقر 1449–1457 Sultan Muhammad سلطان محمد ابن بایسنقر 1447–1451
Abdullah Mirza میرزا عبد اللہ 1450–1451	Abul-Qasim Babur Mirza میرزا ابوالقاسم بابر بن بایسنقر 1451–1457
	Mirza Shah Mahmud میرزا شاہ محمود 1457
	Ibrahim Sultan ابراھیم میرزا 1457–1459
Abu Sa'id Mirza ابو سعید میرزا 1451–1469 (Abu Sa'id meminta bantuan pemimpin Uzbek, Abul-Khayr Khan (kakek Muhammad Shayabani Khan), menaklukan kembali Iran dengan mengalahkan Kara Qoyunlu di bawah Jahan Shah, dan Aq Qoyunlu di bawah Uzun Hassan, di bawah kepemimpinannya Kekaisaran disatukan kembali untuk beberapa waktu.)
**Transoxiana di pecah	Sultan Husayn Bayqaraسلطان حسین میرزا بایقرا1469 (pertama)
	Yadgar Muhammad Mirzaمیرزا یادگار محمد 1470 (6 minggu)
	Sultan Husayn Bayqaraسلطان حسین میرزا بایقرا1470–1506 (kedua)
	Badi' al-Zaman Mirza بدیع الزمان میرزا 1506–1507 Muzaffar Husayn Mirza مظفر حسین میرزا 1506–1507
Kekhanan Uzbek di bawah Muhammad Shayabak Khan (pendiri Kekhanan Bukhoro) menaklukan Herat

Sepeninggal Abu Sa'id, Transoxiana dibagi menjadi Samarkand, Bukhara, Hissar, Balkh, Kabul and Farghana.

Samarkand	Bukhara	Hissar	Farghana	Balkh	Kabul
Sultan Ahmad Mirza سلطان احمد میرزا 1469–1494			Umar Shaikh Mirza II عمر شیخ میرزا ثانی 1469–1494	Sultan Mahmud Mirza سلطان محمود میرزا 1469–1495	Ulugh Beg Mirza II میرزا الغ بیگ 1469 – 1502
Sultan Baysonqor Mirza bin Mahmud Mirza بایسنقر میرزا بن محمود میرزا 1495–1497	Sultan Ali bin Mahmud Mirza سلطان علی بن محمود میرزا 1495–1500	Sultan Masud Mirza bin Mahmud Mirza سلطان مسعود بن محمود میرزا 1495 – ?	Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur ظہیر الدین محمد بابر 1494–1497	Khusrau Shah خسرو شاہ (direbut) ? – 1504	Mukim Beg Arghun مقیم ارغون (direbut) ? – 1504
Muhammad Shayabak Khan dari Uzbek dan Bukhara محمد شایبک خان ازبک 1500–1501			Jahangir Mirza II جہانگیر میرزا (boneka Sultan Ahmed Tambol) 1497 – 1503	Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur ظہیر الدین محمد بابر 1504–1504
Muhammad Shayabak Khan dari Uzbek dan Bukhara محمد شایبک خان ازبک 1503–1504					Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur ظہیر الدین محمد بابر 1504–1511
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur 1511–1512 (Dominasi Babur tidak sampai ke India, dia mencoba menyatuan Timuriyah di Asia Tengah dengan bantuan Ismail I, Shah Safawiyah Iran. Wilayah dominasinya dari Laut Kaspia dan Pegunungan Ural meliputi Kabul dan Ghazni; Kunduz dan Hissar; Samarkand dan Bukhara; Farghana; Tashkent dan Sayram)
Ubaydullah Sultan dari Uzbek dan Bukhara عبید اللہ سلطان menaklukan kembali Transoxiana dan Balkh 1512					Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur ظہیر الدین محمد بابر 1512–1530
Timuriyah berakhir ditaklukan Kekhanan Bukhara dari Uzbek. Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur pada 1526 meneruskan penaklukan ke India dengan mendirikan Kekaisaran Mughal.

Gubernur Mirza

Qaidu bin Pir Muhammad bin Jahāngīr 808–811 AH
Abu Bakr bin Mīrān Shāh 1405–1407 (807–809 AH)
Pir Muhammad (son of Umar Shaikh) 807–812 AH
Rustam 812–817 AH
Sikandar 812–817 AH
Ala al-Dawla Mirza 851 AH
Abu Bakr bin Muhammad 851 AH
Sultān Muhammad 850–855 AH
Muhammad bin Hussayn 903–906 AH
Abul A'la Fereydūn Hussayn 911–912 AH
Muhammad Mohsin Khān 911–912 AH
Muhammad Zamān Khān 920–923 AH
Shāhrukh II bin Abu Sa'id 896–897 AH
Ulugh Beg II 873–907 AH
Sultān Uways 1508–1522 (913–927 AH)

Referensi

^ Subtelny, Maria E. (2007). Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran . Leiden: Brill. hlm. 260. ISBN 978-9004160316.
^
- Manz, Beatrice Forbes (1999). The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge University Press, p.109. ISBN 0-521-63384-2. Limited preview pada Google Books. p.109. "In almost all the territories which Temür incorporated into his realm Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. Thus the language of the settled 'divan' was Persian."
- B.F. Manz, W.M. Thackston, D.J. Roxburgh, L. Golombek, L. Komaroff, R.E. Darley-Doran. "Timurids" Encyclopaedia of Islam Brill Publishers 2007; "During the Timurid period, three languages, Persian, Turkish, and Arabic were in use. The major language of the period was Persian, the native language of the Tajik (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban Turks. Persian served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry."
- Bertold Spuler. "CENTRAL ASIA v. In the Mongol and Timurid Periodse". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Diakses tanggal 2017-09-14. "Like his father, Olōğ Beg was entirely integrated into the Persian Islamic cultural circles, and during his reign Persian predominated as the language of high culture, a status that it retained in the region of Samarqand until the Russian revolution 1917 ... Ḥoseyn Bāyqarā encouraged the development of Persian literature and literary talent in every way possible ...
- Robert Devereux (ed.) "Muhakamat Al-Lughatain (Judgment of Two Languages)" Mir 'Ali Shir Nawāi; Leiden, E.J. Brill 1966: "Nawa'i also employs the curious argument that most Turks also spoke Persian but only a few Persians ever achieved fluency in Turkic. It is difficult to understand why he was impressed by this phenomenon, since the most obvious explanation is that Turks found it necessary, or at least advisable, to learn Persian – it was, after all, the official state language – while Persians saw no reason to bother learning which was, in their eyes, merely the uncivilized tongue of uncivilized nomadic tribesmen.
- David J. Roxburgh. The Persian Album, 1400–1600: From Dispersal to Collection. Yale University Press, 2005. pg 130: "Persian literature, especially poetry, occupied a central in the process of assimilation of Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamicate courtly culture, and so it is not surprising to find Baysanghur commissioned a new edition of Firdawsi's Shanama."
^ B. F. Manz; W. M. Thackston; D. J. Roxburgh; L. Golombek; L. Komaroff; R. E. Darley-Doran (2007). "Timurids". Encyclopaedia of Islam (edisi ke-Online). Brill Publishers. During the Timurid period, three languages, Persian, Turkish, and Arabic were in use. The major language of the period was Persian, the native language of the Tajik (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban Turks. Persian served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry.
^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222. ISSN 1076-156X. Diakses tanggal 2016-09-14.
^ Rein Taagepera (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia". International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3). p. 500. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793.
^ Subtelny, Maria (2007). Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran (dalam bahasa Inggris). BRILL. hlm. 40–41. ISBN 978-9004160316. Nevertheless, in the complex process of transition, members of the Timurid dynasty and their Turko-Mongolian supporters became acculturated by the surrounding Persianate millieu adopting Persian cultural models and tastes and acting as patrons of Persian language, culture, painting, architecture and music. [...] The last members of the dynasty, notably Sultan-Abu Sa'id and Sultan-Husain, in fact came to be regarded as ideal Perso-Islamic rulers who devoted as much attention to agricultural development as they did to fostering Persianate court culture.
^ B.F. Manz, "Tīmūr Lang", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Online Edition, 2006
^ Timur (1336–1405). Cham: Springer International Publishing. 2021. hlm. 1391–1391. ISBN 978-3-030-58291-3.
^ Grousset, René (1970). The empire of the steppes : a history of central Asia. Naomi Walford. New Brunswick, N.J. ISBN 0-8135-0627-1. OCLC 90972.

[1] Subtelny, Maria E. (2007). Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran . Leiden: Brill. hlm. 260. ISBN 978-9004160316.

[2] 
Manz, Beatrice Forbes (1999). The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge University Press, p.109. ISBN 0-521-63384-2. Limited preview pada Google Books. p.109. "In almost all the territories which Temür incorporated into his realm Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. Thus the language of the settled 'divan' was Persian."

B.F. Manz, W.M. Thackston, D.J. Roxburgh, L. Golombek, L. Komaroff, R.E. Darley-Doran. "Timurids" Encyclopaedia of Islam Brill Publishers 2007; "During the Timurid period, three languages, Persian, Turkish, and Arabic were in use. The major language of the period was Persian, the native language of the Tajik (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban Turks. Persian served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry."

Bertold Spuler. "CENTRAL ASIA v. In the Mongol and Timurid Periodse". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Diakses tanggal 2017-09-14. "Like his father, Olōğ Beg was entirely integrated into the Persian Islamic cultural circles, and during his reign Persian predominated as the language of high culture, a status that it retained in the region of Samarqand until the Russian revolution 1917 ... Ḥoseyn Bāyqarā encouraged the development of Persian literature and literary talent in every way possible ...

Robert Devereux (ed.) "Muhakamat Al-Lughatain (Judgment of Two Languages)" Mir 'Ali Shir Nawāi; Leiden, E.J. Brill 1966: "Nawa'i also employs the curious argument that most Turks also spoke Persian but only a few Persians ever achieved fluency in Turkic. It is difficult to understand why he was impressed by this phenomenon, since the most obvious explanation is that Turks found it necessary, or at least advisable, to learn Persian – it was, after all, the official state language – while Persians saw no reason to bother learning which was, in their eyes, merely the uncivilized tongue of uncivilized nomadic tribesmen.

David J. Roxburgh. The Persian Album, 1400–1600: From Dispersal to Collection. Yale University Press, 2005. pg 130: "Persian literature, especially poetry, occupied a central in the process of assimilation of Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamicate courtly culture, and so it is not surprising to find Baysanghur commissioned a new edition of Firdawsi's Shanama."

[3] Manz, Beatrice Forbes (1999). The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane. Cambridge University Press, p.109. ISBN 0-521-63384-2. Limited preview pada Google Books. p.109. "In almost all the territories which Temür incorporated into his realm Persian was the primary language of administration and literary culture. Thus the language of the settled 'divan' was Persian."

[4] B.F. Manz, W.M. Thackston, D.J. Roxburgh, L. Golombek, L. Komaroff, R.E. Darley-Doran. "Timurids" Encyclopaedia of Islam Brill Publishers 2007; "During the Timurid period, three languages, Persian, Turkish, and Arabic were in use. The major language of the period was Persian, the native language of the Tajik (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban Turks. Persian served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry."

[5] Bertold Spuler. "CENTRAL ASIA v. In the Mongol and Timurid Periodse". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Diakses tanggal 2017-09-14. "Like his father, Olōğ Beg was entirely integrated into the Persian Islamic cultural circles, and during his reign Persian predominated as the language of high culture, a status that it retained in the region of Samarqand until the Russian revolution 1917 ... Ḥoseyn Bāyqarā encouraged the development of Persian literature and literary talent in every way possible ...

[6] Robert Devereux (ed.) "Muhakamat Al-Lughatain (Judgment of Two Languages)" Mir 'Ali Shir Nawāi; Leiden, E.J. Brill 1966: "Nawa'i also employs the curious argument that most Turks also spoke Persian but only a few Persians ever achieved fluency in Turkic. It is difficult to understand why he was impressed by this phenomenon, since the most obvious explanation is that Turks found it necessary, or at least advisable, to learn Persian – it was, after all, the official state language – while Persians saw no reason to bother learning which was, in their eyes, merely the uncivilized tongue of uncivilized nomadic tribesmen.

[7] David J. Roxburgh. The Persian Album, 1400–1600: From Dispersal to Collection. Yale University Press, 2005. pg 130: "Persian literature, especially poetry, occupied a central in the process of assimilation of Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamicate courtly culture, and so it is not surprising to find Baysanghur commissioned a new edition of Firdawsi's Shanama."

[3] B. F. Manz; W. M. Thackston; D. J. Roxburgh; L. Golombek; L. Komaroff; R. E. Darley-Doran (2007). "Timurids". Encyclopaedia of Islam (edisi ke-Online). Brill Publishers. During the Timurid period, three languages, Persian, Turkish, and Arabic were in use. The major language of the period was Persian, the native language of the Tajik (Persian) component of society and the language of learning acquired by all literate and/or urban Turks. Persian served as the language of administration, history, belles lettres, and poetry.

[4] Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222. ISSN 1076-156X. Diakses tanggal 2016-09-14.

[5] Rein Taagepera (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia". International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3). p. 500. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793.

[6] Subtelny, Maria (2007). Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran (dalam bahasa Inggris). BRILL. hlm. 40–41. ISBN 978-9004160316. Nevertheless, in the complex process of transition, members of the Timurid dynasty and their Turko-Mongolian supporters became acculturated by the surrounding Persianate millieu adopting Persian cultural models and tastes and acting as patrons of Persian language, culture, painting, architecture and music. [...] The last members of the dynasty, notably Sultan-Abu Sa'id and Sultan-Husain, in fact came to be regarded as ideal Perso-Islamic rulers who devoted as much attention to agricultural development as they did to fostering Persianate court culture.

[EI-7] B.F. Manz, "Tīmūr Lang", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Online Edition, 2006

[8] Timur (1336–1405). Cham: Springer International Publishing. 2021. hlm. 1391–1391. ISBN 978-3-030-58291-3.

[9] Grousset, René (1970). The empire of the steppes : a history of central Asia. Naomi Walford. New Brunswick, N.J. ISBN 0-8135-0627-1. OCLC 90972.

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