Orang Karia

Orang Karia atau Kares (bahasa Yunani Kuno: Κᾶρες, Kares, bentuk jamak dari ΚάρΚάρ, Kar^[2]) adalah penduduk kuno daerah Karia di Anatolia barat daya.

Catatan sejarah

Tidak jelas kapan bangsa Karia mulai tercatat masuk dalam sejarah. Definisi ini tergantung sesuai pada penamaan Karia pada masa itu sebagai "Karkiya" atau "Karkisa" yang disebutkan dalam catatan orang-orang Het. Pada Zaman perunggu, bangsa Karkisa yang pertama disebutkan dibantu Liga Assuwa melawan Raja Het, Tudhaliya I. Kemudian pada tahun 1323 SM, Raja Arnuwandas II mampu menulis ke bangsa Karkiya agar mereka memberikan suaka untuk Manapa-Tarhunta yang telah digulingkan dari "tanah Sungai Seha", salah satu pemerintah dalam kompleks Luwian Arzawa di barat semenanjung Anatolia. Hal ini mereka lakukan, agar Manapa-Tarhunta memungkinkan untuk mengambil kembali kerajaan-nya. Pada tahun 1274 SM, bangsa Karkisa juga disebutkan antara orang-orang yang berjuang di samping Kerajaan Het ketika menghadapi Mesir dalam Pertempuran Kadesh. Kesimpulan secara keseluruhan, catatan Het sepertinya menunjuk pada keturunan Luwian untuk bangsa Karia dan, dengan demikian, mereka kemungkinan telah kehilangan sejarah literasi mereka pada Masa Kegelapan Anatolia.

Hubungan antara Zaman Perunggu bangsa "Karkiya" atau "Karkisa" dan Zaman Besi bangsa Karia lebih rumit, meskipun sama-sama berada di bagian barat Anatolia, karena ketidakpastian mengenai lokasi yang tepat dari bekas peta dalam geografi bangsa Het.^[3] Namun, anggapan ini cocok jika dilihat dari sisi linguistik mengingat bahwa bangsa Fenisia yang menyebut mereka "KRK" dalam buku naskah dan disebut juga sebagai "krka" dalam bahasa persia kuno.

Sejarah bangsa Karia berikutnya muncul dalam catatan awal abad milenium pertama SM; Homer's menulis tentang golden armor (pelindung emas) atau ornamen dari kapten bangsa Karia, Nastes, saudara Amphimachus dan anak Nomion,^[4] mencerminkan reputasi kekayaan bangsa Karia yang mungkin telah mendahului zaman kegelapan Yunani dan dengan demikian diingat dalam tradisi lisan.

Dalam beberapa terjemahan dari teks-teks Alkitab, bangsa Karia juga disebutkan dalam 2 raja-Raja 11:4, 11:19 (/kɑˈɽi/; כָּרִי, dalam bahasa Ibrani yang secara harfiah berarti "seperti lemak domba/kambing", secara kontekstual "yang mulia" atau "yang terhormat") dan mungkin disinggung dalam 2 Samuel 8:18, 15:18, dan 20:23 (/kɽɛˈti/; כְּרֵתִי, mungkin tidak berhubungan karena "t", mungkin merujuk ke bangsa Kreta). Mereka juga disebut sebagai tentara bayaran dalam prasasti yang ditemukan di Mesir kuno dan Nubia, tertanggal pada masa pemerintahan Psammetichus I dan II. Mereka kadang-kadang disebut juga sebagai "Cari" atau "Khari". Sisa-sisa bangsa Karia telah ditemukan di kota kuno Persepolis atau kota modern Takht-e Jamshid di Iran.

Sejarawan yunani Herodotus mencatat bahwa bangsa Karia sendiri diyakini aborigin (bangsa asli) dari Karia tapi mereka juga, dengan konsensus umum dari sumber-sumber kuno, sebelumnya orang-orang maritim yang secara bertahap masuk ke pedalaman.^[3] Plutarch menyebutkan bangsa Karia sebagai "ayam" oleh bangsa Persia pada rekening mereka karena mengenakan punuk bulu seperti leher ayam pada helm mereka; julukan tersebut diungkapkan dalam bentuk hak istimewa bahasa Persia ketika prajurit Karia yang bertanggung jawab untuk membunuh Cyrus Muda dihargai oleh Artahsasta II (r. 405/404–359/358 BC) dengan kehormatan memimpin tentara Persia dengan penis emas di titik tombaknya.^[5]

Menurut Thucydides, sebagian besar bangsa Karia yang menetap di Cyclades sebelum Minoa. Zaman Perunggu Tengah (MMI–MMII) perluasan Minoans ke wilayah ini tampaknya telah mendatangkan biaya bagi mereka. Berniat untuk mengamankan pendapatan di Cyclades, Minos dari Knossos membentuk angkatan laut dengan mendirikan koloni pertama dan mengambil kontrol dari laut Hellenic dan berkuasa atas Cyclades. Dalam melakukannya, Minos mengusir bangsa Karia, banyak yang telah berubah menjadi bajak laut sebagai cara hidup. Selama pemurnian Athena oleh Delos,^{[butuh klarifikasi]} semua kuburan yang digali dan ditemukan lebih dari setengahnya adalah milik bangsa Karia (diidentifikasi oleh gaya lengan dan metode penguburan).^[6]

Menurut Strabo, bangsa Karia, dari semua "bangsa barbar", memiliki kecenderungan tertentu untuk berbaur dengan orang-orang Yunani,

"Hal ini terutama terjadi dengan bangsa Karia, untuk, meskipun bangsa lainnya belum memiliki atau berhubungan sangat dekat dengan orang-orang Yunani atau bahkan mencoba hidup dengan fashion Hellenic atau untuk belajar bahasa kita ... namun bagnsa Karia telah berkeliaran di seluruh Yunani melayani ekspedisi untuk dibayar. ... dan ketika mereka diusir dari situ [pulau] ke Asia, bahkan di sini mereka tidak dapat hidup terpisah dari orang-orang Yunani, yang saya maksud ketika Ionia dan Dorians kemudian menyeberang ke Asia." (Strabo 14.2.28)

Karia dan Leleges

Bangsa Karia yang sering dikaitkan oleh para penulis yunani sebagai Leleges, meskipun sifat yang tepat dari hubungan antara Karia dan Leleges masih misterius. Dua kelompok ini tampaknya berbeda, tapi kemudian bercampur dengan satu sama lain. Strabo menulis bahwa mereka begitu bercampur hingga mereka sering bingung dengan satu sama lain.^[7] Namun, Athenaeus, menyatakan bahwa Leleges berdiri dalam kaitannya dengan bangsa Karia seperti Helots berdiri untuk Lacedaemonians.^[8] Kebingungan dari dua bangsa ini ditemukan juga di masa Herodotus, yang menulis bahwa bangsa Karia, ketika mereka diduga hidup di tengah Cyclades, dikenal juga sebagai Leleges.

Arkeolog mempelajari Carian makam di Milas, Beçin.

Bahasa

Bahasa Karia termasuk rumpun bahasa Anatolia dengan cabang Luwik. Bahasa Luwik lainnya selain bahasa Luwian yang tepat adalah Lycian dan Milyan (Lisia B). Meskipun nenek moyang bangsa Karia dan Likia pasti sangat dekat dengan Luwian, mungkin tidak tepat untuk mengklaim bahwa mereka adalah keturunan linear Luwian.^[3] Adalah mungkin bahwa penutur Proto-Karia, atau nenek moyang dari Karia dan Mula, menyediakan para prajurit elit dari Zaman Perunggu kerajaan Arzawa, penduduk yang sebagian terdiri dari Lidia.^[3]

Bukti terpenting dari kepercayaan bangsa Karia dalam hubungan darah dan afinitas budaya dengan bangsa Lidia dan Mysians adalah masuknya, terlepas dari mereka, secara eksklusif dari Lidia dan Mysians ke kuil "Karia Zeus" di ibu kota pertama mereka di Mylasa.

Agama

Salah satu pusat-pusat ritual bangsa Karia di Mylasa, di mana mereka menyembah dewa tertinggi mereka, yang disebut 'Karia Zeus' oleh Herodotus. Tidak seperti Zeus, dewa ini lebih seperti prajurit tuhan.

Adalah mungkin bahwa dewi Hecate, pelindung jalur dan persimpangan jalan, berasal dari bangsa Carians.^[3] Herodotus menyebut dirinya Athena dan mengatakan bahwa pendetanya akan menumbuhkan jenggot ketika bencana terjadi.^[9]

Di Gunung Latmos dekat Miletus, bangsa Karia menyembah Endymion, yang adalah kekasih dari Bulan dan ayah dari lima puluh anak-anak. Endymion tidur selamanya, di tempat suci yang ditujukan kepadanya, yang berlangsung sampai masa Romawi.

Ada setidaknya satu nama pendeta yang kita kenal dari wilayah ini, Carminia Ammia yang adalah pendeta dari Thea Maeter Adrastos dan Aphrodite.

Mitologi Yunani

Menurut Herodotus, bangsa Karia diberi nama setelah eponymous Car, raja legendaris awal dan saudara Lydus dan Mysus, juga eponim dari masing-masing pendiri dari bangsa Lidia dan Mysians dan semua anak-anak Atys.^[10]

Catatan Homer menyebutkan Miletus (kemudian dikenal sebagai kota Ionia), bersama-sama dengan gunung Phthries, sungai Maeander dan puncak-puncak Gunung Mycale dikuasai oleh bangsa Karia pada saat Perang Troya dan bangsa Karia, yang ketika itu memenuhi syarat oleh penyair sebagai bangsa yang pidatonya sulit dimengerti, bergabung dengan Trojans melawan Achaea di bawah kepemimpinan Nastes, saudara Amphimachos ("dia yang berjuang keduanya") dan anak Nomion. Angka-angka ini hanya muncul dalam Iliad dan dalam daftar di lambang Dares dari Frigia dari Perang Troya.

Yunani Klasik sering mengklaim bahwa bagian dari yang dikuasai bangsa Karia ke utara pada awalnya dijajah oleh bangsa Ionia Yunani sebelum Dorians.

Dewi Yunani, Hecate kemungkinan berasal dari bangsa Karia.^[11] Memang, sebagian besar theophoric nama merujuk ke Hecate, seperti Hecataeus atau Hecatomnus, ayah dari Mausolus, yang dibuktikan di Karia.^[12]

Arkeologi

Sepanjang tahun 1950-an, J. M. Memasak dan G. E. Bean melakukan survei arkeologi lengkap di Karia.^[13] Masak akhirnya menyimpulkan bahwa bangsa Karia hampir tanpa ada bukti prasejarah yang tetap. Menurut laporan, dari masa ketiga milenium sebagian besar hanya ditemukan terbatas pada beberapa daerah atau di dekat pantai Aegean. Tidak ada temuan dari milenium kedua yang dikenal selain dari sisa-sisa Submycenean di Asarlik dan sisa-sisa peradaban Mikenai di Miletus dan dekat Milas. Secara arkeologis, tidak ada yang membedakan tentang bangsa Karia karena bahan bukti sejauh ini hanya menunjukkan bahwa budaya mereka adalah hanya sebuah refleksi dari kebudayaan Yunani.^[14]

Selama tahun 1970-an, penggalian arkeologi lanjutan di Karia mengungkapkan bangunan Mycenean di Iasus (dengan dua "Minoan" tingkat di bawah mereka),^[15] serta Protogeometric dan bahan sisa Geometris (yaitu kuburan dan tembikar).^[16] Para arkeolog juga menegaskan kehadiran bangsa Karia di Sardis, Rhodes, dan di Mesir, di mana mereka melayani sebagai tentara bayaran dari Firaun. Di Rhodes, secara khusus, jenis ruang-makam Carian yang dikenal sebagai Ptolemaion dapat dikaitkan dengan periode hegemoni bangsa Karia di pulau tersebut.^[17] Meskipun saat periode kegiatan arkeologi ini meningkat, bangsa Carians masih tidak muncul sebagai suatu kelompok asli dari Anatolia karena kedua pesisir dan daerah-daerah pedalaman dari Karia yang hampir kosong sepanjang zaman prasejarah.^[18]

Adapun asumsi bahwa bangsa Karia turun dari pemukim Neolitik, ini bertentangan dengan fakta bahwa pada masa Neolitik daerah Karia pada dasarnya sepi.^[19] Meskipun populasi masa Neolitik mungkin sangat kecil tetapi pemukiman di Caria telah ada,^[20] orang-orang yang dikenal sebagai "Carians" mungkin sebenarnya berasal dari Aegean yang menetap di barat daya Anatolia selama milenium kedua SM.^[21]

Lihat juga

Referensi

Kutipan

^ Achaemenid soldiers
^ Κάρ. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e [[#CITEREF|]].
^ Homer. Iliad, 2.858–2.875.
^ Plutarch. Parallel Lives, "Artaxerxes".
^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 1.4–1.8.
^ Strabo. Geographica, 7.321 and 13.611.
^ Athenaeus. The Deipnosophists, 6.271.
^ Herodotus. Histories, 8.104.
^ Herodotus. Histories, 1.171.
^ Walter Burkert, (1987) Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, p. 171. Oxford, Blackwell.
^ Theodor Kraus, Hekate: Studien zu Wesen u. Bilde der Göttin in Kleinasien u. Griechenland (Heidelberg) 1960
^ Bass 1963, hlm. 356 [Footnote]: "G. E. Bean and J. M. Cook, BSA 47 (1952) 171ff; BSA 50 (1955) 85ff; BSA 52 (1957) 58ff."
^ Cook 1959-1960, hlm. 50 under Caria: "Except in the extreme east, where it is approached from the Maeander valley, Karia seems to be almost totally barren of prehistoric remains; considering the archaeological reconnaissances that have recently been carried out here, this lacuna is noteworthy. Finds of third-millennium date are confined to a very few points on or near the Aegean coast, with the curious exception of one find-spot which seems to be near Yatağan at the head of the Marsyas valley. No second-millennium remains are known apart from the Mycenaean at Miletus, the Submycenaean at Asarlik (Termera) opposite Cos, and the reports of Mycenaean from the vicinity of Mylasa. It is now asserted by some scholars that the Carians were a people, perhaps Indo-European, who inhabited the interior of Anatolia and only descended to Caria and the Aegean at the end of the Bronze Age; but this is far from harmonising with the Greek tradition about them, and the writer for one finds it difficult to explain the Mycenaean in Caria (and perhaps adjacent islands) as being anything other than Carian. Our difficulty with early Caria is that we have no means as yet of distinguishing Carians; archaeologically their culture appears as little more than a reflection of contemporary Greek culture. Excavation of early Carian settlements is urgently needed."
^ Mitchell & McNicoll 1978-1979, hlm. 79 under Caria: "At Iasus Mycenaean buildings, approximately dated by the presence of LH IIIa ware, have been found below the protogeometric cemetery. Below this again two 'Minoan' levels are reported, the earlier containing local imitations of MM II-LM I ware, the later imported pieces of the Second Palace Period (AJA [1973], 177-8). Middle and Late Minoan ware has also occurred at Cnidus (AJA [1978], 321)."
^ Mitchell & McNicoll 1978-1979, hlm. 79 under Caria: "There has been much archaeological activity in Caria, and there is little doubt that the discoveries made in the last decade, when fully published, will provoke a reappraisal of Carian history at all periods. Mycenaean discoveries at Iasus and elsewhere have already been mentioned (p. 63). Protogeometric and geometric finds have also been abundant. On the coast a tomb at Dirmil produced 8th century B.C. pottery (C. Özgünel, Belleten 40 [1976], 3 ff.) and there is geometric pottery from the settlement at Iasus, as well as protogeometric ware of a distinct Carian style from the cemetery beneath the Roman agora (ASAA [1969/70], 464 ff.). Inland, at Beçin, the fortified site which was presumably the precursor of Mylasa, a geometric cemetery has been excavated by A. Akarca (Belleten xxxv [1971], 1-52). These finds and the Carian geometric style are discussed by J. N. Coldstream, Geometric Greece (1977), 258-60. Since then a group of geometric kotylai from Euromus has been published by C. Özgünel, AA (1977), 8-13."
^ Mitchell & McNicoll 1978-1979, hlm. 79 under Caria: "Carians also made their mark abroad, and recent work sheds light on their presence in Sardis (J. G. Pedley, JHS [1974], 96-9), Rhodes (P. M. Fraser, Rhodian Funerary Monuments [1977], 5, a chamber-tomb of Carian type known as the Ptolemaion, probably belonging to the period of Carian hegemony in the island for which see id., BSA [1972], 122-3), and above all in Egypt as mercenaries in the Pharaonic armies (O. Masson, Bull. Soc. Fr. d'Egyptologie lvi [1969], 25-36; A. B. Lloyd, JEA [1978], 107-10)."
^ Bass 1963, hlm. 356: "J. M. Cook, after his thorough and exhaustive survey of the area with G. Bean, doubts that the Carians occupied Caria during the second millennium B.C. for, with the exception of Miletus, and Mylasa with its scanty Mycenaean remains, "the coast appears a blank on the map...and the interior of Caria seems to have been virtually uninhabited throughout prehistoric times. Paton and Myres had previously suggested that the lack of Mycenaean remains in Caria, within sight of so many islands which were occupied by Mycenaeans, must have been due to some unknown mainland opposition."
^ Drews 2001, hlm. 260: "That Neolithic Caria was uninhabited is quite incredible. Hacilar directly east of Caria, was a Neolithic settlement already in 8000 B.C."
^ Drews 2001, hlm. 260: "In short, the population of Neolithic Caria may have been very small..."
^ Bienkowski & Millard 2000, hlm. 65–66: "Caria, Carians A region of south-west Turkey, south of *Lydia, Caria was first settled in the *Neolithic but became a distinctive culture only in the first millennium BC. Carians may originally have been of *Aegean origin and settled in the area in the second millennium BC. The earlier first-millennium BC communities seem to have been independent, mainly *temple centres for native deities, and Caria came under Lydian control. There was considerable *Hellenistic influence, and already the *pottery of the eighth and seventh centuries BC had a geometric tradition similar to that of east Greece. In 546 BC, Caria was brought under *Persian rule and placed under the Lydian satrapy. By the fourth century BC, its culture was similar to that of a *Greek city-state. The Carian *language is related to Luwian (*Hittite) and is known from inscriptions written in a local form of the Greek *alphabet discovered in Caria and others in Egypt by Carian mercenaries."

Sumber

Bass, George F. (Oct 1963). "Mycenaean and Protogeometric Tombs in the Halicarnassus Peninsula". American Journal of Archaeology. 67 (4): 53–361.
Bean, George Ewart (1989). Turkey beyond the Meander. London: John Murray Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-7195-4663-X.
Bienkowski, Piotr; Millard, Alan Ralph (2000). Dictionary of the Ancient Near East. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3557-6.
Boardman, John (1991). The Cambridge Ancient History Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22717-8.
Burkert, Walter; Raffan, John (1987). Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-631-15624-0.
Cook, J. M. (1959–1960). "Greek Archaeology in Western Asia Minor". Archaeological Reports (6): 27–57.
Drews, Robert (2001). Greater Anatolia and the Indo-Hittite Language Family: Papers Presented at a Colloquium Hosted by the University of Richmond, March 18–19, 2000. Institute for the Study of Man. ISBN 0-941694-77-1.
Lajara, Ignacio-Javier Adiego (2007). The Carian Language. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 90-04-15281-4.
Melchert, H. Craig (2003). The Luwians. Leiden, The Netherlands: BRILL. ISBN 90-04-13009-8. ^{[pranala nonaktif permanen]}
Mitchell, S.; McNicoll, A. W. (1978–1979). "Archaeology in Western and Southern Asia Minor 1971-78". Archaeological Reports (25): 59–90.
Yakubovich, Ilya S. (2010). Sociolinguistics of the Luvian Language. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 90-04-17791-4.

Bacaan Lanjutan

Urso, Gianpaolo (2007). "Les Cariens ou la mauvaise conscience du Barbare (Alain Bresson, pp. 209-228)". Tra Oriente e Occidente: Indigeni, Greci e Romani in Asia Minore (PDF). Pisa, Italy: Edizione ETS. ISBN 88-467-1826-7.
Des Courtils, Jacques (2009). "The Findings From A Late Geometric Period Grave Uncovered At Beçin (Yasemin Polat, pp. 133-150)". Anatolia Antiqua XVII. Librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient Adrien Misonneuve, Jean Maisonneuve Successeur. ISBN 2-906053-96-1.

Pranalaluar

Livius – Caria (Jona Lendering) Diarsipkan 2015-01-01 di Wayback Machine.

[1] Achaemenid soldiers

[LSJ-2] Κάρ. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project

[Harvard_citation_no_brackets-3] [[#CITEREF|]].

[4] Homer. Iliad, 2.858–2.875.

[5] Plutarch. Parallel Lives, "Artaxerxes".

[6] Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 1.4–1.8.

[7] Strabo. Geographica, 7.321 and 13.611.

[8] Athenaeus. The Deipnosophists, 6.271.

[9] Herodotus. Histories, 8.104.

[Herodotus._Histories,_1.171-10] Herodotus. Histories, 1.171.

[Burkert-11] Walter Burkert, (1987) Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, p. 171. Oxford, Blackwell.

[12] Theodor Kraus, Hekate: Studien zu Wesen u. Bilde der Göttin in Kleinasien u. Griechenland (Heidelberg) 1960

[13] Bass 1963, hlm. 356 [Footnote]: "G. E. Bean and J. M. Cook, BSA 47 (1952) 171ff; BSA 50 (1955) 85ff; BSA 52 (1957) 58ff."

[14] Cook 1959-1960, hlm. 50 under Caria: "Except in the extreme east, where it is approached from the Maeander valley, Karia seems to be almost totally barren of prehistoric remains; considering the archaeological reconnaissances that have recently been carried out here, this lacuna is noteworthy. Finds of third-millennium date are confined to a very few points on or near the Aegean coast, with the curious exception of one find-spot which seems to be near Yatağan at the head of the Marsyas valley. No second-millennium remains are known apart from the Mycenaean at Miletus, the Submycenaean at Asarlik (Termera) opposite Cos, and the reports of Mycenaean from the vicinity of Mylasa. It is now asserted by some scholars that the Carians were a people, perhaps Indo-European, who inhabited the interior of Anatolia and only descended to Caria and the Aegean at the end of the Bronze Age; but this is far from harmonising with the Greek tradition about them, and the writer for one finds it difficult to explain the Mycenaean in Caria (and perhaps adjacent islands) as being anything other than Carian. Our difficulty with early Caria is that we have no means as yet of distinguishing Carians; archaeologically their culture appears as little more than a reflection of contemporary Greek culture. Excavation of early Carian settlements is urgently needed."

[15] Mitchell & McNicoll 1978-1979, hlm. 79 under Caria: "At Iasus Mycenaean buildings, approximately dated by the presence of LH IIIa ware, have been found below the protogeometric cemetery. Below this again two 'Minoan' levels are reported, the earlier containing local imitations of MM II-LM I ware, the later imported pieces of the Second Palace Period (AJA [1973], 177-8). Middle and Late Minoan ware has also occurred at Cnidus (AJA [1978], 321)."

[16] Mitchell & McNicoll 1978-1979, hlm. 79 under Caria: "There has been much archaeological activity in Caria, and there is little doubt that the discoveries made in the last decade, when fully published, will provoke a reappraisal of Carian history at all periods. Mycenaean discoveries at Iasus and elsewhere have already been mentioned (p. 63). Protogeometric and geometric finds have also been abundant. On the coast a tomb at Dirmil produced 8th century B.C. pottery (C. Özgünel, Belleten 40 [1976], 3 ff.) and there is geometric pottery from the settlement at Iasus, as well as protogeometric ware of a distinct Carian style from the cemetery beneath the Roman agora (ASAA [1969/70], 464 ff.). Inland, at Beçin, the fortified site which was presumably the precursor of Mylasa, a geometric cemetery has been excavated by A. Akarca (Belleten xxxv [1971], 1-52). These finds and the Carian geometric style are discussed by J. N. Coldstream, Geometric Greece (1977), 258-60. Since then a group of geometric kotylai from Euromus has been published by C. Özgünel, AA (1977), 8-13."

[17] Mitchell & McNicoll 1978-1979, hlm. 79 under Caria: "Carians also made their mark abroad, and recent work sheds light on their presence in Sardis (J. G. Pedley, JHS [1974], 96-9), Rhodes (P. M. Fraser, Rhodian Funerary Monuments [1977], 5, a chamber-tomb of Carian type known as the Ptolemaion, probably belonging to the period of Carian hegemony in the island for which see id., BSA [1972], 122-3), and above all in Egypt as mercenaries in the Pharaonic armies (O. Masson, Bull. Soc. Fr. d'Egyptologie lvi [1969], 25-36; A. B. Lloyd, JEA [1978], 107-10)."

[18] Bass 1963, hlm. 356: "J. M. Cook, after his thorough and exhaustive survey of the area with G. Bean, doubts that the Carians occupied Caria during the second millennium B.C. for, with the exception of Miletus, and Mylasa with its scanty Mycenaean remains, "the coast appears a blank on the map...and the interior of Caria seems to have been virtually uninhabited throughout prehistoric times. Paton and Myres had previously suggested that the lack of Mycenaean remains in Caria, within sight of so many islands which were occupied by Mycenaeans, must have been due to some unknown mainland opposition."

[19] Drews 2001, hlm. 260: "That Neolithic Caria was uninhabited is quite incredible. Hacilar directly east of Caria, was a Neolithic settlement already in 8000 B.C."

[20] Drews 2001, hlm. 260: "In short, the population of Neolithic Caria may have been very small..."

[21] Bienkowski & Millard 2000, hlm. 65–66: "Caria, Carians A region of south-west Turkey, south of *Lydia, Caria was first settled in the *Neolithic but became a distinctive culture only in the first millennium BC. Carians may originally have been of *Aegean origin and settled in the area in the second millennium BC. The earlier first-millennium BC communities seem to have been independent, mainly *temple centres for native deities, and Caria came under Lydian control. There was considerable *Hellenistic influence, and already the *pottery of the eighth and seventh centuries BC had a geometric tradition similar to that of east Greece. In 546 BC, Caria was brought under *Persian rule and placed under the Lydian satrapy. By the fourth century BC, its culture was similar to that of a *Greek city-state. The Carian *language is related to Luwian (*Hittite) and is known from inscriptions written in a local form of the Greek *alphabet discovered in Caria and others in Egypt by Carian mercenaries."

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